Italian WWii

Account limit of 2197 requests per hour exceeded.

Germany, the Worlds and the Wars

 

The Treaty of Versailles

The Treaty of Versailles, signed on 28 June, 1919 at the Paris Peace Conference is one of the internationally acclaimed documents that not only came into being at a crucial point in the history of troubled Europe and of the world, but serves as a point of reference to the turnout of the events after the World War I.

The document addressed measures against Germany for its prominent role in the WWI; it contained reparations that Germany was to pay to the victorious countries that fought on the side of the Allied Powers and enforced Germany to accept the blame as the sole cause of the war.

The conference itself opened on 18 January, 1919 and came to a close on 21 January, 1920 with the inaugural General Assembly of the League of Nations.

Though the conference was attended by diplomats from more than 30 countries: Kings, Prime Ministers, Foreign Ministers, Advisers and Journalists with different interests, the actual outcome and basic decisions contained in the treaty were determined by the five major victorious powers in the WWI (United States of America, Great Britain, France, Italy and Japan).

The final signing of the document was later left due to the “Big Four” (Britain, France, US and Italy) due to the “unhappy compromise” among the victorious powers. Japan had to shun the conference due to issues it deemed as unfair and unequal to the Japanese nation. Even at that, Italy could only play the role of a nominal signatory.

Representation of the victorious powers was made by Woodrow Wilson, US President, Georges Clemenceau, France Prime Minister, David Lloyd George, British Prime Minister, Vittorio Orlando, Italian Prime Minister and Saionji Kimmochi, who led the Japanese delegate.

Russia being a major European power and a formidable member of the Entente (or Allies) should have been included in the conference; she was however excluded because she had signed a peace treaty with Germany in 1918 after losing a large fraction of her land to Germany in a defeat.

Historians till date debate whether or not the harsh terms imposed on Germany helped the rise of the Nazis, especially Adolph Hitler, or whether the terms were best fitting for the mood of the victors at that point in time.

The Notable Provisions of the Treaty of Versailles 

The major provisions of the Treaty of Versailles, which remained controversial and later served as potential stimulants for the WWII were contained in Articles 231-248.

The “War Guilt Clause” contained in Article 231, for instance demanded that Germany owns up as being solely responsible for the WWI and as such was to disarm, make substantial territorial concessions and pay reparations to certain countries that had formed the Entente Powers.

In totality, the provisions of the treaty could be summarized under six headings namely:

1. Legal restrictions
2. Military restrictions
3. Territorial changes
4. Reparations to the allied nations
5. Creation of International Organizations 
6. Others

LEGAL RESTRICTIONS

The Treaty of Versailles imposed legal restrictions on Germany for its monumental part in the war on the side of the Central Powers. The other allies of the Central Powers: Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria were sanctioned via other treaties.

Some of the notable legal restrictions placed on Germany are as below:

• Article 227 charges former German Emperor, Kaiser Wilhelm II with supreme offence against international morality. He is to be tried as a war criminal.
• Article 228-230 tried many other Germans as war criminals.
• Article 231 (the “War Guilt Clause”) lays sole responsibility for the war on Germany, which would be accountable for all the damage done to civilian population of the allies.

MILITARY RESTRICTIONS

Aside the fact that Germany was prohibited from forming any further alliance with Austria to form a larger nation to make up for its lost lands during the WWI, there are also provisions in  Part V of the treaty, which compels almost a total weakening of the German Military. Adolph Hitler was to later violate these restrictions with outright audacity.

Part V of the treaty begins with the preamble: “In order to render possible the initiation of a general limitation of the armaments of all nations, Germany undertakes strictly to observe the military, naval and air clauses which follow.”

Some of the military restrictions placed on Germany are as stated below;

• The Rhineland will become a demilitarized zone administered by Great Britain and France jointly.
• German armed forces will number no more than 100,000 troops and conscription will be abolished.
• Enlisted men will be retained for at least 12 years; officers to be retained for at least 25 years.
• German naval forces will be limited to 15,000 men, 6 battle ships (no more than 10,000 tons displacement each), 6 cruisers (no more than 6,000 tons displacement each), 6 destroyers (no more than 800 tons displacement each) and 12 torpedo boats (no more than 200 tons displacement each). No submarines are to be included.
• The manufacture, import and export of weapons and poison gas is prohibited.
• Armed aircraft, tanks and armored cars are prohibited.
• Blockades on ships are prohibited.
• Restrictions on the manufacture of machine gun.

TERRITORIAL CHANGES

The Treaty of Versailles made is mandatory for Germany to lose most of the lands it had acquired at its unification in 1871 to other European states who fought on the side of the Entente Powers.

Historically, Germany had acquired lands it viewed as “Germanic” even before its unification. Such areas include Alsace Lorraine, Northern Schleswig, Province of Posen, Hulstchin, Eupen and Malmedy, Soldau, East Prussia (Memelland), Saarland and Danzig. The treaty compelled Germany to return all these lands in 1919 as tabulated below:

Land                                                    Returned To

Alsace Lorraine                                   France

Northern Schleswig                             Denmark

Province of Posen                               Poland

Hultschin                                             Czechoslovakia

Upper Silesia                                       Poland

Eupen and Malmedy                           Belgium

Soldau                                                 Poland

Memelland                                         Poland

Eastern Parts of West Prussia             Poland

*Saarland                                             League of Nations (for 15 years) for France’s benefit

Danzig                                                 Separated from Germany for Poland’s benefit

REPARATIONS

Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles pointedly blamed Germany for the war and also expressed and set out the reparations that Germany would pay the allies for all the damages done to the civilians in the allied nations.

Germany was to pay a total sum of £11.3 billion to the Allied Powers. This cost was later reviewed by an Inter-Allied Reparations Commission in 1921 to £4.99 billion.

The reparations were paid in various forms including coal, steel, intellectual property (e.g. the trademark for Aspirin) and agricultural products. This measure was taken to prevent a possible hyperinflation in Germany if she were to pay all the reparations in cash.

CREATION OF INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

International organizations such as the League of Nations and the International Labour Organization, ILO were created via the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles.

Part I of the treaty provided for the creation of the League of Nations with the intention to establish an organization that would arbitrate international disputes and therefore avoid future wars. Part XIII organized the ILO to promote “the regulation of the hours of work, including the establishment of a maximum working day and week, the regulation of the labour supply, the prevention of unemployment, the provision of an adequate living wage, the protection of the worker against sickness, disease and injury arising out of his employment, the protection of children, young persons and women, provision for old age and injury, protection of the interests of workers when employed in countries other than their own recognition of the principle of freedom of association, the organization of vocational and technical education and other measures.

Further, international commissions were set up, according to Part XII, to administer control over the Elbe, the Oder, the Niemen and the Danube rivers.

OTHERS

The treaty contained a lot of other provisions such as that contained in Article 246: “Within six months from the coming into force of the present treaty … Germany will hand over to His Britannic Majesty’s Government the skull of the Sultan Mkwawa which was removed from the Protectorate of German East Africa and taken to Germany.” 

Aims of the Five Major Victorious Powers in the WWI

for Taking Part in Treaty of Versailles Conference 

As far back as the mid 18th century down to the point in history when the WWI took place, all the major powers in Europe had been cautious of each others’ selfish expansion and dictatorial tendencies.

However, from painstaking observation of events, the Napoleonic wars had taught Europe and America two lessons:

(1) Lack of a conscious joint effort to checkmate flagrant expansionism would beget dictatorialness that could crumple the great empires under some greedy dictator as in the case of Napoleon Bonaparte, hence, the need for concerts, alliances and treaties to serve as checks and balances.

(2) Identifiable powers such as Germany, France and Russia must be checkmate at any point in time as each would not hesitate to seize whatever opportunity that is available to emerge as that dictator each of the powers are cautious of.

Though the WWI gingered mutual interest among the five major victorious nations in the Allied Powers (France, Britain, United States of America, Italy and Japan)  leading to the Treaty of Versailles initiative, each nation was not only cautious of the others opportunistic tendencies but was also willing to achieve selfish interests at the conference table.

France through its Prime Minister, Georges Clemenceau was for instance was willing to use the event as a pay back for Germany. France had lost one of its strategic lands rich in coal Alsace Lorraine to Germany in the Franco-Prussian War of 1871 and was willing to regain it via the treaty.

Likewise France claimed that it recorded the highest damage and casualties since most of the WWI were fought on French soil. Estimates of the casualties of the war states that France lost some 1.5 million military personnel and 400,000 civilians to the war.

France was also willing to cripple Germany militarily via the treaty to ensure that Germany remained incapable of ever invading France in future.

Clemenceau popularly attacked Wilson’s “Fourteen Points”. He notably made the remark “Mr. Wilson bores me with his fourteen points. Why, God Almighty has only ten”

However, most of France’s demands were classified as being too harsh and selfish. Britain and the US were constantly cautious of granting France’s wishes for fear of over-empowering France at their own detriment.

France also made several secret overtures to lure Germany into a secret treaty, the latter however, rejected the French, perceiving them as deceptive and mere opportunists seeking Germany’s signing of the treaty to satisfy France.

Britain through its Prime Minister Lloyd George on the other hand would not accede to France’s obvious demands and was perturbed by the US’s “self determination” motive.

Britain was also disposed to the economic crippling of Germany since it was a major competitor to Britain in trade.

Lloyd was also able to cleverly increase Germany’s reparation to Britain on the grounds that the war had left a huge number of widows and orphans in Britain and had left many men unable to work due to injuries in the war.

America through its President, Woodrow Wilson refused to join the League of Nations, though Wilsons’ “Fourteen Points” ideology which had a year earlier gained popularity and had helped reaching the armistice that ended the war helped in the creation of the League of Nations.

The implications of libertarianism, equality, democracy, sovereignty, and self-determination on the powers that hitherto controlled empires made the other powers skeptical of totally agreeing to the United States’ stance.

And although the League of Nations was created at the end of the conference, the US did not join the league as it observed that it did not readily serve as a measure to counter future wars.

The US was strongly careful of parting with its isolationism inclination, and had totally avoided meddling in the affairs of Europe.

The US in fact, had never had any of its serving Presidents visit Europe until the reign of Wilson.

America would have in fact not joined in the war later on in 1917, were it not for the camouflaged attack on its soil. The US had maintained a non-interventionist sentiment all through the war.

America, like the other major powers intended benefiting immensely from the reparations and foster more profitable trade relationships. However, unlike them, it was not totally disposed to the “War Guilt Clause” imposed on Germany. It later signed separate peace treaties with Germany, Austria and Hungary.

Italy’s territorial claims to the strategic area of Fiume (today Rijeka) when rejected at the Paris Conference of 1919 made its Prime Minister, Vitorrio Orlando leave the negotiations only to return in June to sign the treaty. Italy had also claimed that it had lost over 700,000 Italians and a budget deficit of 12,000,000,000 Lire during the war. These losses positioned Italy to make more demands than they were offered at the negotiation table during the conference. 

Japan though part of the victorious five did not stay long at the negotiations at the conference when its delegation’s attempt to insert a clause banning discrimination on the basis of race or nationality was struck out. The Japanese delegation was led by Saionji Kimmochi.

Though, the equality and racial discrimination agitation of Japan was outright attacked by Australia, the other “White Powers” saw the wider implication of ratifying such demand and covertly prevented its ratification at the conference leaving a rather disgruntled Japan to shun the conference.

Hence, the treaty had inherent lapses from its conception and did not actually last long as expected by its signatories. The entire powers and countries present at the conference unleashed a clash of interest that opened loopholes for Germany to launch the WWII since it was quick to observe that the Treaty of Versailles could only serve a temporary purpose to maintain peace in Europe.

Germany and Germans’ Reactions to the Treaty of Versailles

Though Germany was not permitted any formal role in the draft of the treaty, its delegates to Versailles under the leadership of the Foreign Minister, Ulrich Graf Von Brockdorf-Rantzau when faced with the conditions dictated by the victors, especially the “War Guilt Clause” were outward in their rage and displeasure. Ulrich Graf was quoted to have said in reply to Lloyd, Clemenceau and Wilson “we know the full brunt of hate that confronts us here. You demand from us to confess we were the only guilty party of war; such a confession in my mouth would be a lie”.

In a short while, the German government withdrew from the Versailles negotiations describing it as provisions as “unfair demands” and a “violation of honour”.

Also, Germans of all political inclinations denounced the treaty, with emphasis on the “War Guilt Clause”. They referred to the treaty as “Diktat” since its terms were enforced on Germany.

The first democratically elected Chancellor of Germany, Phillip Scheidemann also refused to sign the treaty and resigned.

In a passionate speech to the national Assembly on 12 March, 1919, he called the treaty a “murderous plan” and exclaimed: “which hand, trying to put us in chains like these, would not wither? The treaty is unacceptable.”

However, after Scheidmanns’s resignation, a new coalition government was formed under Gustav Bauer and due to the prostrate condition of the German army, military resistance was ruled out, so there was a massive vote in favour of signing the treaty.

The foreign minister Hermann Muller and Johannes Bell signed the treaty on behalf of Germany on 28 June, 1919.

It is worthy to note that this event was the beginning of the horrors faced by the Jews in the aftermaths of the WWI and during WWII. This is because the Jews were perceived by German conservatives, nationalists and ex-military leaders as cynical, who had not supported the war in the first place and who would have been instrumental in selling Germany to the Allied Powers.

This argument is strongly based on the fact that Germany already had an upper hand in the war with the victory over Russia, which led to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and the Spring Offensive earlier in 1918. But its failure came from the strikes in the Arms Industry, which left soldiers with inadequate supply of materiel (arms). The strike was largely blamed on the Jews.

Violations of the Treaty of Versailles 

Aside the fact that the war in itself had weakened the German economy, such that only a small percentage of the reparations imposed by the treaty were paid in cash, the extent of the reparations which an economist by the time had projected would not end till 2020 became unbearable leading to hyperinflation in Germany.

At this point Germany stopped paying the reparations and as a result, French and Belgian forces invaded and occupied the Ruhr – an heavily industrialized part of Germany along the French-German border. In retaliation, German workers offered “passive resistance” refusing to work in the factories as long as they were controlled by the French.

Other violations followed:

• In 1919, the dissolution of the General Staff appeared to happen; however, the core of the General Staff was hidden within another organization, the Truppenamt, where it rewrote all Heer (Army) and Luftstreitkraft (Air force) doctrinal and training materials based on the experience of WWI.
• On 16th April, 1922, representatives of the governments of Germany and the Soviet Union signed the Rapallo Treaty at a World Economic Conference at Genoa in Italy. The treaty re-established diplomatic relations, renounced financial claims on each other and pledged future cooperation.
• In 1932 the German government announced it would no longer adhere to the treaty’s military limitations, citing the Allies’ violation of the treaty by failing to initiate military limitations on themselves as called for in the preamble of Part V of the treaty.
• In March 1935 Adolph Hitler violated the treaty by introducing compulsory military conscription in Germany and rebuilding the armed forces. This included a new Navy (Kriegsmarine), the first full armoured divisions (Panzawaffe) and an air force (Luftwaffe).
• In June 1935, the United Kingdom effectively withdrew from the treaty with the signing of the of the Anglo-German Naval Agreement.
• In March 1936, Hitler violated the treaty by annexing Austria in the Anschluss.
• In September 1938, Hitler with approval of France, Britain and Italy violated the treaty by annexing Czechoslovak border regions, the Sudentenland.
• In March 1939, Hitler violated the treaty by occupying the rest of Czechoslovakia.
• On 1 September 1939, Hitler violated the treaty by invading Poland, thus initiating WWII in Europe.

The treaty had no longer than it was created failed and rendered irrelevant and ineffective.

 

Conclusion  

It could be concluded that right from the time when America refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles, the purpose of the treaty had failed. Many scholars, economists, historians and journalists have given their views of the Treaty of Versailles, and though they varied on their submissions, a conjugation of their varies positions provides an elaborate assessment of the actual conditions that the treaty gave or failed to give rise to.

All in all, two things are evident from their submissions:

1. the irony of the treaty: the treaty was intended to weaken Germany, but ended up creating huge opportunities for the rise of the NAZI and remarkably Adolph Hitler.
2. Likewise, the treaty failed to achieve peace in Europe, rather created more grounds for discontent among the Allied Powers giving room for the WWII.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

About the Author

Nelson Oluwabukola Michael is Nigerian. Born into the family of the Nelsons in the year 1983 on the 12th of April.

He has a National Diploma in Mass Communication and a Professional Diploma in Public Relations from the Nigerian Institute of Public Relations (NIPR).

He has served as the Editor-in-Chief of The Precision Newspaper, a community Newspaper that is committed to sensitizing the man at the grassroot on the occurences in his environment.

Also, he was the Editor-in-Chief, LASPOTECH Watch, a campus magazine he headed during his National Diploma studies at the prestigious Lagos State Polytechnic in Nigeria.
He currently works as Assistant Public Relations Officer.

He is committed to contributing to the growth of businesses through offering professional; advise on communication and relationships.

FEB - Brazilian Expeditionary Force - WWII - Italian front 1944/45